1998 DODGE RAM 1500 oil level

DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING - CYLINDER
COMPRESSION PRESSURE
The results of a cylinder compression pressure test
can be utilized to diagnose several engine malfunc-
tions.
Ensure the battery is completely charged and the
engine starter motor is in good operating condition.
Otherwise the indicated compression pressures may
not be valid for diagnosis purposes.
(1) Clean the spark plug recesses with compressed
air.
(2) Remove the spark plugs.
(3) Disable the fuel system (Refer to 14 - FUEL
SYSTEM/FUEL DELIVERY - DESCRIPTION).
(4) Remove the ASD relay (Refer to 8 - ELECTRI-
CAL/IGNITION CONTROL/AUTO SHUT DOWN
RELAY - REMOVAL).
(5) Insert a compression pressure gauge and rotate
the engine with the engine starter motor for three
revolutions.
(6) Record the compression pressure on the 3rd
revolution. Continue the test for the remaining cylin-
ders.
(7) (Refer to 9 - ENGINE - SPECIFICATIONS) for
the correct engine compression pressures.
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING - CYLINDER
COMBUSTION PRESSURE LEAKAGE
The combustion pressure leakage test provides an
accurate means for determining engine condition.
Combustion pressure leakage testing will detect:
²Exhaust and intake valve leaks (improper seat-
ing).²Leaks between adjacent cylinders or into water
jacket.
²Any causes for combustion/compression pressure
loss.
(1) Check the coolant level and fill as required. DO
NOT install the radiator cap.
(2) Start and operate the engine until it attains
normal operating temperature, then turn the engine
OFF.
(3) Remove the spark plugs.
(4) Remove the oil filler cap.
(5) Remove the air cleaner hose.
(6) Calibrate the tester according to the manufac-
turer's instructions. The shop air source for testing
should maintain 483 kPa (70 psi) minimum, 1,379
kPa (200 psi) maximum and 552 kPa (80 psi) recom-
mended.
(7) Perform the test procedures on each cylinder
according to the tester manufacturer's instructions.
Set piston of cylinder to be tested at TDC compres-
sion,While testing, listen for pressurized air escaping
through the throttle body, tailpipe and oil filler cap
opening. Check for bubbles in the radiator coolant.
All gauge pressure indications should be equal,
with no more than 25% leakage.
FOR EXAMPLE:At 552 kPa (80 psi) input pres-
sure, a minimum of 414 kPa (60 psi) should be main-
tained in the cylinder.
Refer to CYLINDER COMBUSTION PRESSURE
LEAKAGE DIAGNOSIS CHART.
CYLINDER COMBUSTION PRESSURE LEAKAGE DIAGNOSIS CHART
CONDITION POSSIBLE CAUSE CORRECTION
AIR ESCAPES THROUGH
THROTTLE BODYIntake valve bent, burnt, or not
seated properlyInspect valve and valve seat. Reface
or replace, as necessary. Inspect
valve springs. Replace as necessary.
AIR ESCAPES THROUGH TAILPIPE Exhaust valve bent, burnt, or not
seated properlyInspect valve and valve seat. Reface
or replace, as necessary. Inspect
valve springs. Replace as necessary.
AIR ESCAPES THROUGH
RADIATORHead gasket leaking or cracked
cylinder head or blockRemove cylinder head and inspect.
Replace defective part
MORE THAN 50% LEAKAGE FROM
ADJACENT CYLINDERSHead gasket leaking or crack in
cylinder head or block between
adjacent cylindersRemove cylinder head and inspect.
Replace gasket, head, or block as
necessary
MORE THAN 25% LEAKAGE AND
AIR ESCAPES THROUGH OIL
FILLER CAP OPENING ONLYStuck or broken piston rings; cracked
piston; worn rings and/or cylinder wallInspect for broken rings or piston.
Measure ring gap and cylinder
diameter, taper and out-of-round.
Replace defective part as necessary
9 - 186 ENGINE - 5.7LDR
ENGINE - 5.7L (Continued)

DIAGNOSIS AND TESTINGÐENGINE DIAGNOSIS - LUBRICATION
CONDITION POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTION
OIL LEAKS 1. Gaskets and O-Rings. 1.
(a) Misaligned or damaged. (a) Replace as necessary.
(b) Loose fasteners, broken or
porous metal parts.(b) Tighten fasteners, Repair or
replace metal parts.
2. Crankshaft rear seal 2. Replace as necessary.
3. Crankshaft seal flange.
Scratched, nicked or grooved.3. Polish or replace crankshaft.
4. Oil pan flange cracked. 4. Replace oil pan.
5.Front cover seal, damaged or
misaligned.5. Replace seal.
6. Scratched or damaged vibration
damper hub.6. Polish or replace damper.
7. Crankshaft Rear Flange
Microporosity7. Replace Crankshaft
OIL PRESSURE DROP 1. Low oil level. 1. Check and correct oil level.
2. Faulty oil pressure sending unit. 2. Replace sending unit.
3. Low oil pressure. 3. Check pump and bearing
clearance.
4. Clogged oil filter. 4. Replace oil filter.
5. Worn oil pump. 5. Replace as necessary.
6. Thin or diluted oil. 6. Change oil and filter.
7. Excessive bearing clearance. 7. Replace as necessary.
8. Oil pump relief valve stuck. 8. Replace oil pump.
9. Oil pickup tube loose or
damaged.9. Replace as necessary.
OIL PUMPING AT RINGS; SPARK
PLUGS FOULING1. Worn or damaged rings. 1. Hone cylinder bores and replace
rings.
2. Carbon in oil ring slots. 2. Replace rings.
3. Incorrect ring size installed. 3. Replace rings.
4. Worn valve guides. 4. Ream guides and replace valves.
5. Leaking intake gasket. 5. Replace intake gaskets.
6. Leaking valve guide seals. 6. Replace valve guide seals.
DRENGINE - 5.7L 9 - 187
ENGINE - 5.7L (Continued)

DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING - ENGINE DIAGNOSIS - MECHANICAL
ENGINE MECHANICAL DIAGNOSIS CHART
CONDITION POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTION
NOISY VALVES/LIFTERS 1. High or low oil level in crankcase 1. Check for correct oil level. Adjust
oil level by draining or adding as
needed
2. Thin or diluted oil 2. Change oil. (Refer to 9 -
ENGINE/LUBRICATION/OIL -
STANDARD PROCEDURE)
3. Low oil pressure 3. Check engine oil level. If ok,
Perform oil pressure test. (Refer to
9 - ENGINE/LUBRICATION -
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING) for
engine oil pressure test/
specifications
4. Dirt in tappets/lash adjusters 4. Clean/replace hydraulic
tappets/lash adjusters
5. Bent push rod(s) 5. Install new push rods
6. Worn rocker arms 6. Inspect oil supply to rocker arms
and replace worn arms as needed
7. Worn tappets/lash adjusters 7. Install new hydraulic tappets/lash
adjusters
8. Worn valve guides 8. Inspect all valve guides and
replace as necessary
9. Excessive runout of valve seats
or valve faces9. Grind valves and seats
CONNECTING ROD NOISE 1. Insufficient oil supply 1. Check engine oil level.
2. Low oil pressure 2. Check engine oil level. If ok,
Perform oil pressure test. (Refer to
9 - ENGINE/LUBRICATION -
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING) engine
oil pressure test/specifications
3. Thin or diluted oil 3. Change oil to correct viscosity.
(Refer to 9 - ENGINE/
LUBRICATION/OIL - STANDARD
PROCEDURE) for correct
procedure/engine oil specifications
4. Excessive connecting rod
bearing clearance4. Measure bearings for correct
clearance with plasti-gage. Repair
as necessary
5. Connecting rod journal out of
round5. Replace crankshaft or grind
journals
6. Misaligned connecting rods 6. Replace bent connecting rods
9 - 188 ENGINE - 5.7LDR
ENGINE - 5.7L (Continued)

CONDITION POSSIBLE CAUSES CORRECTION
MAIN BEARING NOISE 1. Insufficient oil supply 1. Check engine oil level.
2. Low oil pressure 2. Check engine oil level. If ok,
Perform oil pressure test. (Refer to
9 - ENGINE/LUBRICATION -
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING)
3. Thin or diluted oil 3. Change oil to correct viscosity.
4. Excessive main bearing
clearance4. Measure bearings for correct
clearance. Repair as necessary
5. Excessive end play 5. Check crankshaft thrust bearing
for excessive wear on flanges
6. Crankshaft main journal out of
round or worn6. Grind journals or replace
crankshaft
7. Loose flywheel or torque
converter7. Inspect crankshaft, flexplate/
flywheel and bolts for damage.
Tighten to correct torque
LOW OIL PRESSURE 1. Low oil level 1. Check oil level and fill if
necessary
2. Faulty oil pressure sending unit 2. Install new sending unit
3. Clogged oil filter 3. Install new oil filter
4. Worn oil pump 4. Replace oil pump assembly.
5. Thin or diluted oil 5. Change oil to correct viscosity.
6. Excessive bearing clearance 6. Measure bearings for correct
clearance
7. Oil pump relief valve stuck 7. Remove valve to inspect, clean
and reinstall
8. Oil pickup tube loose, broken,
bent or clogged8. Inspect oil pickup tube and pump,
and clean or replace if necessary
9. Oil pump cover warped or
cracked9. Install new oil pump
OIL LEAKS 1. Misaligned or deteriorated
gaskets1. Replace gasket
2. Loose fastener, broken or porous
metal part2. Tighten, repair or replace the part
3. Front or rear crankshaft oil seal
leaking3. Replace seal
4. Leaking oil gallery plug or cup
plug4. Remove and reseal threaded
plug. Replace cup style plug
DRENGINE - 5.7L 9 - 189
ENGINE - 5.7L (Continued)

ENGINE BLOCK
CLEANING
Thoroughly clean the oil pan and engine block gas-
ket surfaces.
Use compressed air to clean out:
²The galley at the oil filter adaptor hole.
²The front and rear oil galley holes.
²The feed holes for the crankshaft main bearings.
Once the block has been completely cleaned, apply
Loctite PST pipe sealant with Teflon 592 to the
threads of the front and rear oil galley plugs. Tighten
the 1/4 inch NPT plugs to 20 N´m (177 in. lbs.)
torque. Tighten the 3/8 inch NPT plugs to 27 N´m
(240 in. lbs.) torque.
INSPECTION
(1) It is mandatory to use a dial bore gauge to
measure each cylinder bore diameter. To correctly
select the proper size piston, a cylinder bore gauge,
capable of reading in 0.003 mm (.0001 in.) INCRE-
MENTS is required. If a bore gauge is not available,
do not use an inside micrometer (Fig. 7).
(2) Measure the inside diameter of the cylinder
bore at three levels below top of bore. Start perpen-
dicular (across or at 90 degrees) to the axis of the
crankshaft and then take two additional reading.
(3) Measure the cylinder bore diameter crosswise
to the cylinder block near the top of the bore. Repeatthe measurement near the middle of the bore, then
repeat the measurement near the bottom of the bore.
(4) Determine taper by subtracting the smaller
diameter from the larger diameter.
(5) Rotate measuring device 90É and repeat steps
above.
(6) Determine out-of-roundness by comparing the
difference between each measurement.
(7) If cylinder bore taper does not exceed 0.025
mm (0.001 inch) and out-of-roundness does not
exceed 0.025 mm (0.001 inch), the cylinder bore can
be honed. If the cylinder bore taper or out- of-round
condition exceeds these maximum limits, the cylinder
block must be replaced. A slight amount of taper
always exists in the cylinder bore after the engine
has been in use for a period of time.CAMSHAFT & BEARINGS (IN
BLOCK)
REMOVAL
REMOVAL - CAMSHAFT CORE HOLE PLUG
CAUTION: Do not damage the rear surface of the
camshaft or the core plug sealing surface, when
removing the core plug.
(1) Remove the rear cam bearing core plug.
REMOVAL - CAMSHAFT
(1) Remove the battery negative cable.
(2) Remove the air cleaner assembly.
(3) Drain coolant.
(4) Remove the accessory drive belt.
(5) Remove the generator.
(6) Remove the A/C compressor, and set aside
(7) Remove the radiator (Refer to 7 - COOLING/
ENGINE/RADIATOR - REMOVAL).
(8) Remove intake manifold(Refer to 9 - ENGINE/
MANIFOLDS/INTAKE MANIFOLD - REMOVAL).
(9) Remove cylinder head covers(Refer to 9 -
ENGINE/CYLINDER HEAD/CYLINDER HEAD
COVER(S) - REMOVAL).
(10) Remove both left and right cylinder heads(Re-
fer to 9 - ENGINE/CYLINDER HEAD - REMOVAL) .
(11) Remove the oil pan(Refer to 9 - ENGINE/LU-
BRICATION/OIL PAN - REMOVAL).
(12) Remove timing case cover(Refer to 9 -
ENGINE/VALVE TIMING/TIMING BELT / CHAIN
COVER(S) - REMOVAL).
(13) Remove the oil pick up tube.
(14) Remove the oil pump(Refer to 9 - ENGINE/
LUBRICATION/OIL PUMP - REMOVAL).
Fig. 7 BORE GAUGE-TYPICAL
1 - FRONT
2 - BORE GAUGE
3 - CYLINDER BORE
4 - 38 MM (1.5 in)
DRENGINE - 5.7L 9 - 205

INSTALLATION
(1) Throughly clean all gasket resdue from the
engine block.
(2) Use extream care and clean all gasket resdue
from the retainer.
(3) Position the gasket onto the retainer.
(4) Position the retainer onto the engine block.
(5) Install the retainer mounting bolts. Tighten the
bolts to 15 N´m (132 in. lbs.) using a crisscross pat-
tern, starting with the bolt on the lower right.
(6) Install a new rear seal(Refer to 9 - ENGINE/
ENGINE BLOCK/CRANKSHAFT OIL SEAL - REAR
- INSTALLATION).
(7) Install the oil pan (Refer to 9 - ENGINE/LU-
BRICATION/OIL PAN - INSTALLATION).
(8) Install the drive plate / flywheel.
(9) Install the transmission.
(10) Check and verify engine oil level.
(11) Start engine and check for leaks.
FLEX PLATE
REMOVAL
(1) Remove the transmission.
(2) Remove the bolts and flexplate.
INSTALLATION
(1) Position the flexplate or flywheel onto the
crankshaft and install the bolts hand tight.
(2)For automatic transmissions:Tighten the
flexplate retaining bolts to 95 N´m (70 ft. lbs.).
(3)For manual transmissions:Tighten the fly-
wheel retaining bolts to 75 N´m (55 ft. lbs.).
(4) Install the transmission.
HYDRAULIC TAPPETS
DIAGNOSIS AND TESTING - HYDRAULIC
TAPPETS
Before disassembling any part of the engine to cor-
rect tappet noise, check the oil pressure. If vehicle
has no oil pressure gauge, install a reliable gauge at
the pressure sending-unit. The pressure should be
between 207-552 kPa (30-70 psi) at 3,000 RPM.
Check the oil level after the engine reaches normal
operating temperature. Allow 5 minutes to stabilize
oil level, check dipstick. The oil level in the pan
should never be above the FULL mark or below the
ADD OIL mark on dipstick. Either of these two con-
ditions could be responsible for noisy tappets.
OIL LEVEL
HIGH
If oil level is above the FULL mark, it is possible
for the connecting rods to dip into the oil. With the
engine running, this condition could create foam in
the oil pan. Foam in oil pan would be fed to the
hydraulic tappets by the oil pump causing them to
lose length and allow valves to seat noisily.
LOW
Low oil level may allow oil pump to take in air. When
air is fed to the tappets, they lose length, which allows
valves to seat noisily. Any leaks on intake side of oil
pump through which air can be drawn will create the
same tappet action. Check the lubrication system from
the intake strainer to the pump cover, including the
relief valve retainer cap. When tappet noise is due to
aeration, it may be intermittent or constant, and usu-
ally more than one tappet will be noisy. When oil level
and leaks have been corrected, operate the engine at
fast idle. Run engine for a sufficient time to allow all of
the air inside the tappets to be bled out.
TAPPET NOISE DIAGNOSIS
(1) To determine source of tappet noise, operate
engine at idle with cylinder head covers removed.
(2) Feel each valve spring or rocker arm to detect
noisy tappet. The noisy tappet will cause the affected
spring and/or rocker arm to vibrate or feel rough in
operation.
NOTE: Worn valve guides or cocked springs are
sometimes mistaken for noisy tappets. If such is
the case, noise may be dampened by applying side
thrust on the valve spring. If noise is not apprecia-
bly reduced, it can be assumed the noise is in the
tappet. Inspect the rocker arm push rod sockets
and push rod ends for wear.
(3)
Valve tappet noise ranges from light noise to a
heavy click. A light noise is usually caused by excessive
leak-down around the unit plunger, or by the plunger
partially sticking in the tappet body cylinder. The tap-
pet should be replaced. A heavy click is caused by a tap-
pet check valve not seating, or by foreign particles
wedged between the plunger and the tappet body. This
will cause the plunger to stick in the down position.
This heavy click will be accompanied by excessive clear-
ance between the valve stem and rocker arm as valve
closes. In either case, tappet assembly should be
removed for inspection and cleaning.
(4) The valve train generates a noise very much
like a light tappet noise during normal operation.
Care must be taken to ensure that tappets are mak-
ing the noise. If more than one tappet seems to be
noisy, it's probably not the tappets.
9 - 210 ENGINE - 5.7LDR
CRANKSHAFT REAR OIL SEAL RETAINER (Continued)

INSPECTION
Check the connecting rod journal for excessive
wear, taper and scoring (Refer to 9 - ENGINE/EN-
GINE BLOCK/CONNECTING ROD BEARINGS -
STANDARD PROCEDURE).
Check the connecting rod for signs of twist or bend-
ing.
Check the piston for taper and elliptical shape
before it is fitted into the cylinder bore (Refer to 9 -
ENGINE/ENGINE BLOCK/PISTON & CONNECT-
ING ROD - STANDARD PROCEDURE).
Check the piston for scoring, or scraping marks in
the piston skirts. Check the ring lands for cracks
and/or deterioration.
INSTALLATION
(1) Before installing piston and connecting rod
assemblies into the bore, install the piston rings(Re-
fer to 9 - ENGINE/ENGINE BLOCK/PISTON RINGS
- STANDARD PROCEDURE).
(2) Immerse the piston head and rings in clean
engine oil. Position a ring compressor over the piston
and rings. Tighten ring compressor.Ensure posi-
tion of rings do not change during this opera-
tion.
(3) Position bearing onto connecting rod. Lubricate
bearing surface with clean engine oil.
(4) Install Special Tool 8507 Connecting Rod
Guides into connecting rod bolt threads.
(5) The pistons are marked on the piston pin bore
surface with an raised ªFº or arrow on top of piston
indicating installation position. This mark must be
pointing toward the front of engine on both cylinder
banks.
(6) Wipe cylinder bore clean and lubricate with
engine oil.
(7) Rotate crankshaft until connecting rod journal
is on the center of cylinder bore. Insert rod and pis-
ton into cylinder bore and carefully position connect-
ing rod guides over crankshaft journal.
(8) Tap piston down in cylinder bore using a ham-
mer handle. While at the same time, guide connect-
ing rod into position on rod journal.
CAUTION: Connecting Rod Bolts are Torque to
Yield Bolts and Must Not Be Reused. Always
replace the Rod Bolts whenever they are loosened
or removed.
(9) Lubricate rod bolts and bearing surfaces with
engine oil. Install connecting rod cap and bearing.
Tighten bolts to 21 N´m (15 ft. lbs.) plus a 90É turn.
(10) Install the following components:
²Cylinder head(s). (Refer to 9 - ENGINE/CYLIN-
DER HEAD - INSTALLATION).²Cylinder head covers (Refer to 9 - ENGINE/
CYLINDER HEAD/CYLINDER HEAD COVER(S) -
INSTALLATION).
²Install the intake manifold.
²Oil pan and gasket/windage tray. (Refer to 9 -
ENGINE/LUBRICATION/OIL PAN - INSTALLA-
TION).
(11) Fill crankcase with proper engine oil to cor-
rect level.
(12) Connect negative cable to battery.
PISTON RINGS
STANDARD PROCEDURE - PISTON RING
FITTING
Before reinstalling used rings or installing new
rings, the ring clearances must be checked.
(1) Wipe the cylinder bore clean.
(2) Insert the ring in the cylinder bore.
NOTE: The ring gap measurement must be made
with the ring positioned at least 12mm (0.50 inch.)
from bottom of cylinder bore.
(3) Using a piston, to ensure that the ring is
squared in the cylinder bore, slide the ring downward
into the cylinder.
(4) Using a feeler gauge check the ring end gap
(Fig. 13). Replace any rings not within specification.
PISTON RING SIDE CLEARANCE
NOTE: Make sure the piston ring grooves are clean
and free of nicks and burrs.
Fig. 13 Ring
1 - FEELER GAUGE
DRENGINE - 5.7L 9 - 213
PISTON & CONNECTING ROD (Continued)

If the leakage occurs at the crankshaft rear oil seal
area:
(1) Disconnect the battery.
(2) Raise the vehicle.
(3) Remove torque converter or clutch housing
cover and inspect rear of block for evidence of oil.
Use a black light to check for the oil leak:
(a) Circular spray pattern generally indicates
seal leakage or crankshaft damage.
(b) Where leakage tends to run straight down,
possible causes are a porous block, distributor seal,
camshaft bore cup plugs oil galley pipe plugs, oil
filter runoff, and main bearing cap to cylinder
block mating surfaces.
(4) If no leaks are detected, pressurize the crank-
case as outlined in the, Inspection (Engine oil Leaks
in general)
CAUTION: Do not exceed 20.6 kPa (3 psi).
(5) If the leak is not detected, very slowly turn the
crankshaft and watch for leakage. If a leak is
detected between the crankshaft and seal while
slowly turning the crankshaft, it is possible the
crankshaft seal surface is damaged. The seal area on
the crankshaft could have minor nicks or scratches
that can be polished out with emery cloth.
CAUTION: Use extreme caution when crankshaft
polishing is necessary to remove minor nicks and
scratches. The crankshaft seal flange is especially
machined to complement the function of the rear oil
seal.
(6) For bubbles that remain steady with shaft
rotation, no further inspection can be done until dis-
assembled.
OIL
STANDARD PROCEDURE - ENGINE OIL
SERVICE
WARNING: NEW OR USED ENGINE OIL CAN BE
IRRITATING TO THE SKIN. AVOID PROLONGED OR
REPEATED SKIN CONTACT WITH ENGINE OIL.
CONTAMINANTS IN USED ENGINE OIL, CAUSED BY
INTERNAL COMBUSTION, CAN BE HAZARDOUS TO
YOUR HEALTH. THOROUGHLY WASH EXPOSED
SKIN WITH SOAP AND WATER. DO NOT WASH
SKIN WITH GASOLINE, DIESEL FUEL, THINNER, OR
SOLVENTS, HEALTH PROBLEMS CAN RESULT. DO
NOT POLLUTE, DISPOSE OF USED ENGINE OIL
PROPERLY.
ENGINE OIL SPECIFICATION
CAUTION: Do not use non-detergent or straight
mineral oil when adding or changing crankcase
lubricant. Engine failure can result.
API SERVICE GRADE CERTIFIED
Use an engine oil that is API Service Grade Certi-
fied. MOPARtprovides engine oils that conform to
this service grade.
SAE VISCOSITY
An SAE viscosity grade is used to specify the vis-
cosity of engine oil. Use only engine oils with multi-
ple viscosities such as 5W-30 in the 5.7L engines.
These are specified with a dual SAE viscosity grade
which indicates the cold-to-hot temperature viscosity
range. Select an engine oil that is best suited to your
particular temperature range and variation.
ENERGY CONSERVING OIL
An Energy Conserving type oil is recommended for
gasoline engines. The designation of ENERGY CON-
SERVING is located on the label of an engine oil con-
tainer.
CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION
Standard engine oil identification notations have
been adopted to aid in the proper selection of engine
oil. The identifying notations are located on the label
of engine oil plastic bottles and the top of engine oil
cans (Fig. 28).
OIL LEVEL INDICATOR (DIPSTICK)
The engine oil level indicator is located at the left
hand of the engine on the 5.7L engines.
CRANKCASE OIL LEVEL INSPECTION
CAUTION: Do not overfill crankcase with engine oil,
pressure loss or oil foaming can result.
Inspect engine oil level approximately every 800
kilometers (500 miles). Unless the engine has exhib-
ited loss of oil pressure, run the engine for about ten
Fig. 28 API SYMBOL
9 - 222 ENGINE - 5.7LDR
LUBRICATION (Continued)