2015 AUDI A5 warning light

Airbag syste m
A WARNING
A child in a rearward-facing child safety seat
installed on the fr ont passenger seat will be
ser iously injure d and can be killed if the front
airbag inflates - ev en w ith an Advanced Airbag
System.
- The inflating a irbag w ill hit the child safety
seat or infant carrier with great force and
will smash the chi ld safety seat and child
against the backrest, center armrest, door or roof .
- Always insta ll rear-facing child sa fety seats
on the rear seat.
- If you must install a rearward facing child
safety seat on the front passenger seat be­ ca use of exceptional c ircumstances and the
PASSENGER A IR BAG OFF light does not
come on and stay on, immediately install
the rear-fac ing ch ild safety seat in a rear
seat ing pos ition and have the airbag system
inspected by your authorized Audi dea ler.
- Forward-facing ch ild safety seats installed
on the front passenger's seat may interfere
with the deployment of the airbag and cause serio us pe rsonal injury to the child .
A WARNING
If, in exceptional c ircumstances, you must in­
stall a forward-facing chi ld restraint on the
front passenger's seat:
- Always make sure the forward-fac ing seat
has been designed and ce rtified by its man­
ufact urer for use on a front seat with a pas­
senger front and side airbag.
- Never put the forwa rd-facing child rest raint
up against or ve ry nea r the instrument pan­
el.
- Always move the passenger seat into its
rearmost posi tion in the sea t's fore and aft
adjus tment range, as far away from the air ­
bag as possib le before installing the for­
ward-facing ch ild restraint . The backrest
must be adjusted to an up right posit ion.
- Make sure that the
PASSENGER AIR BAG
OFF
light comes on and stays on all the t ime
whenever the ignition is switched on.
132
A WARNING
-
To reduce the risk of ser ious injury, make sure
that the
PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF li ght will
be d isp layed wheneve r a ch ild restraint is in­
stalled on the front passenger seat and the ig nit ion is switched on.
- If the PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light does
not stay on, pe rform the checks desc ribed
~ page 139, Monitoring the Advanced Air­
bag System.
- Ta ke the child restraint off the front passen­
ge r seat and inst all it properly at one of the
rea r seat positions if the
PASSENGER AIR
BAG OFF
light does not stay on.
- Have the airbag system inspected by your
author ized Audi dealer immed iate ly .
- Always carefu lly follow instr uctions from
child res traint manufa cturers when instal­
ling child restraints .
A WARNING
If, in exceptiona l circumstances, you must in ­
stall a forwa rd or rearward-facing ch ild re­
straint on the front passenger's seat:
- Improper installation of chi ld restraints can
red uce their effectiveness or even prevent
them from providing any protect ion.
- An improperly installed chi ld restra int can
interfere w ith the airbag as it deploys and
serious ly injure or even kill the child - even
w ith an Advanced A irbag System.
-Always carefully fo llow the man ufacturer's
instructions provided w ith the child safety
seat or ca rrie r.
- Never p lace add itiona l items on the seat
that can increase the total weight reg istered
by the weight-sensing mat and can cause in­
jury in a crash.

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-a small adu lt or teenager is on the front pas­
senger seat
- a passenger who is not sitting upright w ith
their back against a non-reclined backrest with
their feet on the vehicle floor in front of the
seat is on the front passenger seat.
I f the front passenger airbag deploys, the Federa l
Standard requires the airbag to meet the " low
risk" deployment criteria to help reduce the risk
of injury through interact ion with the airbag .
"Low risk" deployment occurs in those crashes
that take place at lower decelerations as defined
in the electron ic control unit.
c:> page 139
Alway s remember: Even though your vehicle is
equ ipped w ith Advanced A irbags, the safest place
for children is properly restrained on the back
seat. Please be sure to read the important infor­ mat ion in the sections that follow and be sure to
h eed a ll of the WARNINGS.
.&, WARNING
To reduce the risk of injury whe n an airbag in­
flates, always wear sa fety belts proper ly.
- If you are unres trained, lean ing fo rward, sit­
t ing s ideways or out of position in any way,
yo ur risk of in jury is much higher.
- You w ill also receive serious inju ries and
cou ld even be killed if you are up against the
airbag or too close to it when it inflates -
even with an Advanced Airbag
c> page 129.
.&_ WARNING
A child in a rearward-facing child safety seat
installed on the front passenger seat will be
ser iously injured and can be killed if the front
airbag inflates -even with an Advanced A irbag
System .
- Although the Advanced Airbag System in
your vehicle is designed to turn off the front
airbag when a rearward-facing child re­
straint has been installed on the front pas­ senger seat, nobody can abso lutely g uaran­
tee that deployment is impossible in a ll con­
c eivable s ituations that may happen dur ing
the useful life of you r vehicle .
- The inflating a irbag w ill hit the child safety
sea t or infan t carrier wi th grea t fo rce and
Airbag syste m
will smash the child safety seat and child
aga inst the backrest, center armrest, door,
or roof.
- Always install rearward-facing ch ild re­
straints in the back seat.
- If you must install a rearward fac ing child
safety seat on the front passenger seat be­
cause of except iona l circumstances and the
PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light does not
come on and stay on, immediately install
the r ear-facing child safety seat in a rear
seati ng position and have the airbag system
i n spected by yo ur authori zed Audi dealer.
.&_ WARNING
If, in except iona l circumstances, you m ust in­
stall a forwa rd-facing child rest ra in t on the
front passenger's seat:
- Always make sure the forward- facing se at
has been des igned and certif ied by its man ­
ufacturer for use on a front seat with a pas­
senger front and s ide a irbag .
- Never p ut the fo rward-facing child restraint
up against or very near the inst rument pan ·
el.
-Always move the passenger seat into its
rea rmost position in the seat's fore and aft
ad justment range, as far away from the a ir­
bag as possible, before installing the for­
ward-facing child restraint. The backrest must be adjusted to an upr ight position .
- Make sure that the
PASSENGER AIR BAG
OFF
li ght comes on and stays o n all the time
whenever the ignit ion is switched on.
Advanced Airbag System components
The front passenger seat in you r vehicle has a lot
of ve ry impo rtant parts of the Advanced A irbag
System i n it. These parts in cl ude the we igh t­
sensing mat, sensors, w iring, b racke ts, and more.
T he function of the system in the front passenger
seat is checked by the electronic control unit
whe n the ignition is on . The control unit monitors
the Advanced Airbag System and turns the airbag indicator light on when a malfunct ion in the sys­
tem components is detected . The function of the
airbag indicator light is described in greater
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1 3 5

Airbag syste m
detail below . Because the front passenger seat
contains important parts of the Advanced Airbag
System, you must take care to prevent it from be­ ing damaged. Damage to the seat may prevent
the Advanced Airbag for the front passenger seat
from doing its job in a crash .
The front Ad vanced Airb ag System con sis ts
of the follow ing :
-Crash sensors in the front of the veh icle that
measure veh icle acceleration/decelerat ion to
provide information to the Advanced Airbag
System about the severity of the crash .
- An electronic control unit, with integrated crash sensors for front and side impacts. The
control un it "decides" whether to fire the front
airbags based on the informa tion rece ived from
the crash sensors. The con trol un it also "de­
cides" whether the safety be lt pretensioners
shou ld be activated.
- An Advanced Airbag wi th gas generator and
control valve for the driver inside the steering
whee l hub.
- An Advanced Airbag with gas generator and
control va lve inside the instrument panel for
the front passenger.
- A weight -sensing mat under the upholste ry
padding of the front passenger seat cushion
that measures the total weight on the seat. The information registered is sent continuously to
the electronic control un it to regu late dep loy­
ment of the front Advanced Airbag on the pas­
senger side.
- An airbag monitoring system and indicator
light in the instrument cluster
r=> page 139.
-A sensor in each front seat registers the dis­
tance between the respect ive seat and the
steering wheel or instrument panel. The infor­
mation registered is sent cont inuously to the
electron ic co ntro l unit to regulate deployment
of the front Advanced Airbags.
- T he
PA SSENGER AIR B AG OFF light comes on
and stays on in the center of the instrument
pane l
c>page 139, fig . 135 and tells you when
the front Advanced A irbag on the passenger
side has been turned off.
- A sensor below the safety belt la tch for the
front seat passenge r to measure the tension on
136 the safety belt
. The tension on the safety be lt
and the weight registered by the weight-sens ­
ing mat help the control unit "decide" whether
the front a irbag for the front passenger seat
should be turned
off or not c> page 130, Child
restraints on the front seat -some important
things to know.
- A sensor in the safety belt latch for the driver
and for the front seat passenger that senses
whether that safety belt is latched or not and transm its this info rmat ion to the elect ro ni c
cont ro l unit .
_&. WARNING
Damage to the fron t passenger seat can pre­
vent the front a irbag from working properly.
- I mproper repa ir or d isassembly of the front
passenger and driver seat will p revent the
Advanced Airbag System from functioning properly.
- Repairs to the front passenge r seat must be
performed by qualified and properly trained
wo rkshop personne l.
- Never remove the front passenger o r driver
seat from the vehicle .
- Never remove the upho lstery from the front
passenger seat.
- Never d isassemble o r remove par ts from the
seat or disconnect w ires from it.
- Never carry sharp obje cts in yo ur pocke ts or
place them on the seat. If the weight-sens­
ing mat in the passenger seat is p unctured
it cannot work properly.
- Never carry things on you r lap or carry ob­
jects on the passenger seat. S uch items can
increase the weight registe red by the
weight-sensing mat and send the wrong in­ formation to the airbag contro l unit.
- Never store items under the front passenger
seat. Parts of the Advanced Airbag System
under the passenger seat could be dam­
aged, preventing them and the airbag sys­
tem from wo rking prope rly.
- Never p lace seat covers or rep lacement up­
holstery that have not been specifically ap­
proved by Audi on the front seats.
- Seat covers can prevent the Advanced Air­ bag System from recogniz ing ch ild

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restraints or occupants on the front passen­
ger seat and prevent the side airbag in the
seat backrest from deploying properly.
- Never use cushions, pillows, blankets or
similar items on the front passenger seat.
The additional padding will prevent the
we ight-sensing mat in the seat from accu­
rately registering the child rest raint or per­
son on the seat and prevent the Advanced
Airbag System from functioning properly.
- If you must use a child restra int on the front
passenge r seat and the child rest rain t man­
ufac turer's instructions requ ire the use of a
towel, foam c ushion or someth ing e lse to
properly position the child restraint, make
certain that the
PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF
light comes on and stays on whenever the
child restraint is installed on the front pas­
senger seat.
- If the
PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light does
not come on and stay on, immediately in­
stall child restra int i n a rear seating position
and have the a irbag system inspected by
your authorized Aud i dealer.
How the Advanced Airbag System
components work together
The front Advanced Airbag System and the s ide
a irbags supplement the protect ion offered by the
front three-point safety belts with pretensioners
and load limiters and the adjustable head re­
straints to help reduce the risk of injury in a wide
range of accident and crash situations . Be sure to
read the important information about safety and
heed the WARNINGS in this chapter.
Dep loyment of the Advanced Airbag System and
the act ivation of the safety belt pretensioners de­
pend on the deceleration measured by the crash
sensors and registered by the electronic control
un it . Crash sever ity depends on speed a nd decel­
e rat ion as well as the mass and st iff ness of the
ve hicle or objec t involved in the crash.
On the passenger s ide, regard less of safety belt
use, the a irbag w ill be turned off if the weight on
the passenge r seat is less than the amount pro­
grammed in the electronic con trol un it . The front
Ai rb ag system
airbag on the passenger side will also be turned
off if one of the child safety seats that has been certified under Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standard 208 has been recogni zed on the seat .
The
P A SSENGER AIR B AG OFF light comes on
and stays on to tell you when the front Advanced
Airbag on the passenger side has been turned off
q page 130, Child restraints on the front seat -
some important things to know .
_&. WARNING
To reduce the risk of inju ry when an airbag i n­
flates, a lways wear safety belts properly.
- If you are unrestra ined, leaning forward, sit­
ting sideways or out of posi tion in any way,
your risk of injury is m uch higher.
- You will a lso receive serious injuries and
could even be killed if you are up aga inst the
airbag or too close to it when it inflates -
even with an Advanced Airbag
qpoge 129.
More important things to know about front
airbags
Fi g. 1 34 Inflated fro nt a irbags
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Safety be lts are important to he lp keep front seat
occupants in the proper seated position so that
airbags can unfold properly and provide supple­
mental protection in a frontal coll ision.
T he front airbags a re des igned to provide addi­
tiona l protection for the chest and face of the
driver and the front seat passenger when:
- safety belts are worn properly,
- t he seats have bee n positioned so tha t the oc-
cupant is properly seated as far as possible
from the airbag, ..,
137

Airbag syste m
-and the head restraints have been properly ad-
justed .
Because airbags inflate i n the blink of an eye with
g rea t force, things you have on yo ur lap or have
p laced on the seat cou ld become dangerous pro­
jectiles, and be pushed into you if the airbag in­
flates.
When an a irbag deploys , fine dust is released.
This is normal and is not caused by a fire in the
vehicle . This dust is made up most ly of a powder
used to lubricate the airbags as they deploy.
It
could irr itate sk in.
I t is important to remember that while the sup­
p lemental airbag system is designed to reduce
the likelihood of serious injuries, other injuries,
for example swel ling, bruising and m inor abra­
sions, can also happen when a irbags inflate. Air­
bags do not protect the arms or the lower parts
of the body. Front airbags only supplement the
three point safety belts in some fronta l collisions
i n which the veh icle deceleration is h igh enough
to deploy the airbags.
F ront airbags w ill not deplo y:
- if the ignit ion is switched off when a crash oc -
curs,
- in s ide collisions,
- in rear-end collisions,
- in ro llovers,
- when the crash deceleration measured by the
airbag system is less than the minimum thresh­
o ld needed for airbag deployment as registered
by the electronic control un it.
Th e front pas seng er airbag will a lso not
depl oy:
-when the front passenger seat is not occupied,
- when the weight on the front passenger seat as
sensed by the Advanced Airbag System indi­
cates that the front airbag on the passenger
s ide has to be turned off by the e lectronic con­
trol unit (the
PAS SENGE R AIR BAG O FF ligh t
comes on and stays on).
A WARNING
Sitting in the wrong position can increase the
r is k of serious injury in crashes .
138
-To reduce the risk of injury when the airbags
inflate, the driver and passengers must al­
ways sit in an upright pos ition, must not
lean aga inst or place any part of thei r body
too close to the area where the a irbags are
located.
- Occupants who are unbelted, out of position
or too close to the airbag can be seriously
injured by an a irbag as it unfolds with great
force in the blink of an eye
c:> page 130.
A WARNING
A child in a rearward-facing ch ild safety seat
installed on the front passenge r seat w il l be
seriously inju red and can be killed if the front
ai rbag inflates -even with an Advanced Airbag
System.
- The inflating airbag will hit the chi ld safety
seat or infant carrier with great force and
w ill smash the child safety seat and child
aga inst the backrest, center armrest, door
or roof.
- Always install rear-fac ing ch ild safety seats
on the rear seat.
- If you must install a rearward fac ing ch ild
safety seat on the front passenger seat be­
cause of exceptiona l circumstances and the
PAS SENGER AIR BAG OFF light does not
come on and stay on, immediately install
the rear-facing child safety seat in a rear
seating posi tion and have the airbag system
inspected by your au thori zed Audi dealer .
A WARNING
Objects between you and the airbag will in­
crease the risk of inj ury in a crash by inte rfe r­
ing with the way the airbag unfolds or by be­
ing p ushed into you as the airbag inflates.
- Never hold things in your hands o r on your
lap when the vehicle is in use .
- Never transpor t items on or in the a rea of
the front passenger seat. Objects could move into the area of the front ai rbags dur­
ing brak ing or other sudden maneuver and
become dangerous project iles that can
cause serious persona l injury if the airbags
inflate.

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-Never place or attach accessories or other
objects (such as cupholders, telephone
brackets, large, heavy or bulky objects) on
the doors, over or near the area marked "AIRBAG" on the steer ing wheel, instru­
ment pane l, seat backrests or between
those areas and yourse lf. These obje cts
c ou ld cause injury in a crash, especially
when the airbags inflate.
- Never recline the front passenger's seat to
transport objects. Items can also move into
the area of the side airbag or the front air ­
bag during braking or in a sudden mane u­
ver. Objects near the airbags can become projectiles and cause injury, particu larly
when the seat is reclined.
A WARNING
The fine dust created when a irbags deploy can
cause breathing prob lems for people with a
history of asthma or other breathing condi­
tions.
- To reduce the r isk of breathing prob lems ,
those w ith asthma or other resp iratory con­
ditions should get fresh air r ight away by
gett ing out of the veh icle or opening w in­
dows or doo rs.
- If you are in a coll is io n in which a irbags de­
ploy, wa sh you r hands and face with mild
soap and w ater before eati ng.
- B e caref ul not to ge t the dust into you r eyes,
o r in to any cuts or s cratc he s.
- If the residue should get into you r eyes,
flush them with water.
Monitoring the
Advanced Airbag System
Airbag monitoring indicator light
Two separate indicators monitor the function of
the Advanced Airbag System: the airbag moni­
toring indicator light and the
PASSENGER AIR
BAG OFF
light.
The Advanced Airbag System (includ ing the elec­
tronic control unit, sensor circuits and system
wir ing) is mon itored cont inuo usly to make sure
that it is funct ion ing properly whenever the ign i-
Ai rb ag system
tio n is on . Each time yo u turn on t he ignit ion, the
II airbag monitoring indicator light wi ll come on
for a few seconds (self diagnostics).
The system must be inspected when th e II
indicator light :
-does not come on when the ignition is sw itched
on,
- does not go out a few seconds after you have switched on the ignition, or
- comes on while driving.
If an airbag system malfunction is detected, the
indica to r li gh t will fi rs t st art flashing to catch the
dr ive r's a tten tion a nd then stay o n cont inuo usly
to serve as a constant reminder to have the sys ­
tem inspected immediately.
If a malfu nction occurs tha t turn s the front air­
bag on the p assenger side off, the PASSENGER
AIR BAG OFF light will come on and stay on
whenever the ignition is on.
A WARNING
-
An a irbag system that is not functioning prop-
erly cannot provide supplemental protection i n a frontal crash.
- If the airbag ind icator light r:::;, page 19
comes when the veh icle is being used, have
the system inspected immediately by your
author ized Audi dealer. It is possible that
the airbag will inflate when it is not sup­
posed to, or will not inflate when it s hould.
PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light
Fi g. 1 35 Sect ion from the instru ment pa nel : PASSENGER
AIR BAG OFF light
The PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light is loca ted in
the center of the ins trument panel
r=;, fig . 135. .,..
139

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his or her back up against the backrest and the
backrest is not reclined
~ page 113, Correct
passenger seating positions,
- the ad ult is not taking weight off the seat by
holding on to the passenger assist handle
above the front passenger door or supporting
their weight on the armrest,
- the safety be lt is being proper ly worn and that
there is not a lot of slack in the safety be lt web ­
bing,
- accessory seat covers or cushions or other
th ings that may cause an incorrect read ing or
impression on the weig ht-sens ing mat under
the upholstery of the seat have been removed
from the front passenger seat,
- a safety be lt extender has not been left in the
safety belt latch for the front passenger seat .
In addition to the
PA SSENGER AIR BAG OFF
light in t he center of the instrument panel, the
message
PASS ENG ER AIR BAG OFF or PAS SEN­
GER AIR BAG ON
will br iefly appear in the instru­
ment cluster display . Th is is to inform the driver
of the current front passenger ai rbag status.
Important safety instructions on
monitoring the Advanced Airbag System
A WARNING
An airbag system that is not funct ioning prop­
erly cannot provide supplementa l protect ion
in a frontal crash.
- If the airbag indicato r light ~ page 19
comes when the vehicle is be ing used, have
the system inspected immed iate ly by your
authorized Audi dealer . It is possible that
the a irbag will inflate when it is not s up­
posed to, or wi ll not inflate when it should.
A WARNING
If the front airbag inflates, a ch ild without a
child restraint, in a rearward-facing child safe­
ty seat or in a forward-facing child restraint that has not been proper ly installed will be
ser iously injured and can be killed.
- Even though your veh icle is equipped with
an Advanced Airbag System, make certa in
that all ch ild ren, especially 12 years and
Airbag syste m
younger, a lways ride on the back seat prop­
erly restra ined for their age and size.
- Always install forward o r rear-facing child
safety seats on the rear seat -even with an
Advanced Airbag System.
- If you must install a rearward-facing child
safety seat on the front passenger seat be­
cause of except iona l circumstances and the
PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light does not
appear and stay on, immediately install the
rea r-facing chi ld safety seat in a rear seating
position and have the airbag system inspect­
ed by your authori zed Audi dealer .
- A tight tether or o ther s trap on a rea rward­
facing ch ild restraint attached to the front
p assenger seat can put too much pressure
on the weight-sens ing mat in the seat and
register more weight than is actually on the
seat. The heavier weight registe red can
make the system work as though an adult
were on the seat and deploy the Advanced
Airbag when it must be suppressed causing
serio us or even fatal injury to the child.
- If, in exceptiona l circumstances, you must
install a forward-facing child restraint on
the front passenger seat, always move the seat into its rearmost pos ition in the seat's
fore and aft ad justmen t range, as fa r away
from the airbag as possib le. The b ackrest
m ust be adjus ted to an upr ight position.
Make sure that the
PASSENGER AIR BAG
OFF
li ght comes on and stays on all the time
whenever the ignit ion is switched on.
A WARNING
--
- If the PASSENGER AIR BAG OFF light does
not go out when an adult is s itting on the
front passenger seat after tak ing the steps
described above, make sure the adult is
p roperly seated and restrained at one of the
rea r seat ing pos itions.
- Have the airbag system inspected by your
author ized Audi dealer befo re transpo rting
anyone on the front passenger seat.
141

Airb ag syst em
position in a frontal collision so that the airbags
can provide supp lemental protection.
The airba g system is not a s ubstitute for yo ur
safety belt. Rathe r, it is part of the overall occ u­
pant restraint system in your vehicle. Always re ­
member that the airbag system can only help to
protect you if you are wearing your safety be lt
and wear ing it properly. This is why you should al­
ways wear your safety belt, not just because the
law requ ires you to do so
¢page 121, General in ­
formation .
Remember too, airbags will deploy only once and
only in certain kinds of accidents -your safety
belts are always there to offer protection in those
accide nts in which airbags are not supposed to
deploy or when they have already deployed, for
examp le when your vehicle str ikes o r is s truck by
another after the first collision .
This is just one of the reasons why a n airbag is
not a substitute for the safety belt. The airbag
system works most effectively when used with
the safety belts . T he refore, always wear your
safety belts correctly.
It is important to remember that while the sup­
p lemental knee airbag system is des igned to re­
duce the likelihood of serio us inj uries , other inju ­
ries, for examp le, swelling, bruising, and mi nor
abrasions and friction burns can a lso occur when
an airbag inflates .
The kn ee airbag system basically consists of:
- T he electronic con tro l module
- Two inflatab le airbags (airbag and gas genera-
tor), one for the drive r and one fo r the front
passenger
- T he airbag indicator light in the instrument
pane l
The knee airbag system will not deploy:
-whe n the ignition is turned off
- in fronta l coll isions when the dece leration
measured by the control unit is too low
- in side collisions
- in rear-end collisions
- in ro llovers
144
- in the event of a system malfunction (warning/
indicator light is on)
r::;, page 19.
A WARNING
-Safety belts and the airbag system can only
provide protection whe n occupants are in
the proper seating position
r::;, page 137.
- If the airbag indicator light r::;, page 19
comes when the vehicle is being used, have
the system inspected immediately by your
author ized Audi dealer .
It is possible that
the airbag will i nflate when it is not sup­
posed to, o r will not inflate when it should.
How knee airbags work
App lies to vehicles: with knee airbags
The risk of injury to the leg area can be reduced
by fully deployed knee airbags.
Fig . 13 7 Inflated airbags protect ing in a fro nta l collis ion
The knee airbag system has been des igned so
that the airbags for the driver and front passen­
ger dep loy in certain but not all fronta l co llisions.
If t he fron t air bags dep loy, the knee a irbags also
deploy in fro nta l collisions whe n the dep loyment
thresho ld stored in the contro l unit is met .
When the system deploys, the ai rbags fill with a
propellan t gas, and inflate be tween the lower
part o f the instr ument panel and the d rive r and
the lowe r part of the instrument panel and the
front passenger
¢ page 137, fig . 134 .
Although they are not a soft p illow, they can
cush io n the impact and in this way they can help
to reduce the risk of injury to the lower extremi­
ties .